Letter

Origin of Writing

Published

3 years ago

April 10, 2023

Origin of Writing, Ancient Egypt, 3200 BC

The history of writing is divided into three eras: the prehistoric era, the ancient era, and the modern era. The prehistoric era is defined as the period before the invention of writing, which occurred around 4000 BCE. During this time, early humans communicated primarily through oral traditions and simple visual symbols.

The ancient era is marked by the emergence of the earliest writing systems, which developed independently in different parts of the world. The origins of writing are traced to Mesopotamia, where the Sumerians developed cuneiform script around 3400 BCE. The ancient Egyptians also developed their own writing system, hieroglyphics, around 3200 BCE.

Other writing systems developed during the ancient era include the Chinese script, which dates back to the Shang Dynasty (1600-1046 BCE), and the Brahmi script of ancient India, which was used to write a variety of languages from around the 3rd century BCE.

The modern era of writing is defined by the widespread adoption of printing technologies, which began in Europe in the 15th century CE. This era also includes the development of digital technologies and the rise of the internet, which have transformed the ways in which we communicate and access information.

Throughout history, writing has played a vital role in the development and spread of human civilization. Writing has allowed for the preservation and transmission of knowledge across time and space, as well as the development of complex social and political systems. Writing has also been used to express cultural and religious traditions, to record personal experiences, and to create works of literature and art.

The adoption of writing varied widely across different cultures and regions. In many cases, writing emerged as a tool of the ruling elite, who used it to record transactions, communicate with each other, and preserve their cultural traditions. However, as societies became more complex, writing systems evolved to include more abstract symbols and phonetic elements, allowing for greater flexibility and expressiveness in written communication.

The spread of writing in the Nile River Valley is an example of how writing systems were adopted and spread throughout ancient civilizations. The ancient Egyptians developed their own writing system, hieroglyphics, around 3200 BCE, which was used to write a wide range of texts, from religious and historical documents to personal letters and literary works. The hieroglyphic script eventually gave rise to other writing systems, such as the hieratic and demotic scripts, which were used for different purposes and by different classes of people.

In Africa, writing systems were less widespread than in other regions, in part because many African societies relied on oral traditions rather than written records. However, there were some highly developed writing systems in Africa, including the Ge’ez script used to write languages such as Amharic and Tigrinya, and the Nsibidi script used by the Igbo people of Nigeria.

Overall, the history of writing is a complex and fascinating topic that has played a fundamental role in human civilization. From its origins in ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt to its widespread use in the modern era, writing has allowed us to express our thoughts, communicate with each other, and create a lasting record of our shared experiences.

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Birondwa Frank

A Pan African

Letter

We’re all “suitcase” Balaalo!

Published

2 years ago

December 22, 2023

Birondwa Frank

Ugandans can speak a lot of English, but scratch the surface a little bit and you’ll find that we do not exactly think, behave, or execute like the British. So we have people trapped in this one-dimensional imitation of Europeans which stops at speaking the language. This has effect of creating dystopian individuals who are a danger to their African society. Educated but not able to manufacture anything, read but don’t know what works, and finally settling down to good old corruption – the lifecycle of a dystopian English imitating African.

Take those fancy English speeches about the “Balaalo” in Acholiland, for instance. While the reality is that Ugandans actually move on a daily basis to and from all corners of the country and settle freely in any part of the country, the discussion on what is essentially the internal migrations of Ugandans, is now suddenly a Shakespearean tragedy.

I have often said that it is a necessary move to make MPs talk about issues in their mother tongues. This would make it easier for them to detect their own idiotic arguments, because they would likely be surrounded by people not from their area. Discussing local issues in English as an African loses so much context.

The narrative of “Balaalo Must Go” which is being force-fed into the psyche of society, is straight out of a fascist playbook and it deserves a good old NRA-style resistance.

Firstly, the term “Balaalo” itself is a diminutive that has often been used to insult; it’s not the same as “Balunzi”. And yet it’s being paraded as a legitimate way to describe the socio-economic life of Banyankole and Banyarwanda cattle keepers. Conversely, if you started calling people “Abalimi” in parliament just because they grow sweet potatoes, cassava, and beans for a living —it would be offensive. So in this particular case, the educated Ugandans see it okay to bring cultural swipes onto the national stage.

Secondly, take this Christmas holiday we’re in as an example. You will find that this is a time for Ugandans to massively migrate internally. Ugandans instinctively participate in a large scale urban-rural migration exercise during these times, turning cities into ghost towns. Where do they come from? What causes this mass movement? Is this temporary or a permanent feature of Ugandan society structure?

These seasonal movements of people would have given perspective to the nature, extent and character of the internal migrations that Ugandans usually do. But our English imitating folks who see things as if they’re the London School of Economics, will leave this small detail out of the discussion. What are you doing in the judiciary, parliament, executive and elsewhere if you cannot bring context to society’s primal problems?

So I think the issue of so called Balaalo moving to any part of Uganda or East Africa, has been mis-defined, mis-characterized

The difference between the rural-urban migration during Christmas season by people with fancier suitcases and slightly less mooing, and the migration of “Balaalo” is that Balaalo move with their cattle, but otherwise it stems from the same primal cause – economic nomadism. Balaalo are shepherds of animals, and looking for greener pastures for their animals is part of their social-economic life cycle.

If going miles away from your birthplace with a suitcase to find a job, start a business, visit a family, etc. doesn’t make you “Balaalo,” but moving with animals does, then you’ve misunderstood your society’s superstructure.

Kyagulanyi Sentamu, the NUP guy from the Ghetto, recently talked about “abatunuza amannyo” (those who look with their teeth) in his Luwero vitriol.

These are obvious attempts at political tribal sentimentality, lacking deep ideological solutions and Pan African spirit.

So the next time someone throws around “Balaalo” like a political insult, remind them: they’re just suitcase Balaalo themselves. Start appreciating the complex ecosystem that keeps this crazy, wonderful country tick.

But most importantly, let’s ditch the tribal vitriol and study the real deal. Cattle keepers, farmers, and the land itself – they’ve been dancing tango for centuries, creating a food production ecosystem that’s the envy of the region.

Have these English imitators ever studied how Ankole region bypassed Buganda region in the production of Matooke, a Buganda staple? I haven’t seen their papers on how farmers who have never used any fertilizer continue to get bumper harvests from their land? Those who make a living by cultivating – “Abalimi”, obviously prefer land which has been farmed on with cattle, because it is very fertile, and cattle-trampled ground is much more cultivable than a wild bush. It is more difficult for cultivators to open a bush which has never been farmed, into food gardens. So the ecosystem has been that where balaalo move, cultivators follow, and intensive cultivation follows.

Niba rero Acholiland ishaka kuzamura ubuhinzi, bagomba guha ikaze Balaalo amaboko afunguye (nimirima irimo ubusa). Bazakomeza amaherezo, bakurikize injyana ya kera, itavuzwe. Aho guta igihe hamwe nicyongereza cyiza nuburakari, reka twinjire mumateka nyayo y’aka karere. Reka dushyireho amategeko arera iyi ecosystem.

Kandi kuri iyo nyandiko, gira kwimuka utekanye na Noheri nziza, mwebwe banyenduga b’amavalisi!

Translations / Tafsiri / Enkyusa/ Ibisobanuro/ Enzivuunula

Letter

Twese turi “ivalisi” Balaalo!

Published

2 years ago

December 22, 2023

Birondwa Frank

Abagande barashobora kuvuga icyongereza kinini, ariko shushanya hejuru gato hanyuma uzasanga tudatekereza neza, imyitwarire, cyangwa kwica nkabongereza. Dufite abantu bafatiwe muri uku kwigana urwego rumwe rw’abanyaburayi bihagarika kuvuga ururimi. Ibi bifite ingaruka zo kurema abantu ba dystopiya babangamiye societe yabo nyafurika. Yize ariko ntashobora gukora ikintu icyo ari cyo cyose, soma ariko utazi icyakora, hanyuma amaherezo ugatura ruswa nziza ishaje – ubuzima bwicyongereza cya dystopiya yigana umunyafurika.

Fata ayo magambo meza yicyongereza yerekeye “Balaalo” muri Acholiland. Mu gihe ikigaragara ari uko Abagande bagenda buri munsi bava mu mpande zose z’igihugu kandi bagatura mu bwisanzure mu gice icyo ari cyo cyose cy’igihugu, ikiganiro ku byerekeranye ahanini n’abimukira mu gihugu cy’Abagande, ubu gitunguranye ni Shakespearean.

Nakunze kuvuga ko ari intambwe ikenewe kugirango abadepite baganire kubibazo biri mundimi zabo kavukire. Ibi byaborohera kumenya ibitekerezo byabo bwite, kuko birashoboka ko bazengurutswe nabantu badaturutse mukarere kabo. Kuganira kubibazo byaho mucyongereza nkumunyafurika bitakaza ibintu byinshi.

Amagambo ya “Balaalo Agomba kugenda” arimo kugaburirwa imbaraga mumitekerereze ya societe, ntabwo yavuye mubitabo by’imikino ya fashiste kandi bikwiye kurwanywa neza muburyo bwa NRA.

Ubwa mbere, ijambo “Balaalo” ubwaryo ni igabanuka ryakunze gukoreshwa mu gutukana; ntabwo ari kimwe na “Balunzi”. Kandi nyamara birasuzumwa nkinzira yemewe yo gusobanura imibereho yubukungu nubukungu bwinka za Banyankole na Banyarwanda. Ku rundi ruhande, uramutse utangiye kwita abantu “Abalimi” mu nteko ishinga amategeko kubera gusa ko bahinga ibijumba, imyumbati, n’ibishyimbo kugirango babeho – byaba ari bibi. Muri uru rubanza rero, Abagande bize bizeye ko ari byiza kuzana ibicuruzwa byumuco kurwego rwigihugu.

Icyakabiri, fata iyi minsi mikuru ya Noheri turimo nkurugero. Uzasanga iki aricyo gihe cyAbagande kwimuka cyane imbere. Muri iki gihe, Abagande bitabira imyitozo nini yo kwimuka mu mijyi no mu cyaro, bahindura imijyi imijyi. Baturuka he? Niki gitera iyi myigaragambyo? Ibi nibyigihe gito cyangwa biranga imiterere ya societe ya Uganda?

Izi ngendo zigihe cyabantu zaba zaratanze icyerekezo kumiterere, ingano nimiterere yimuka yimbere Abagande basanzwe bakora. Ariko icyongereza cyacu twigana abantu babona ibintu nkaho ari ishuri ryubukungu rya Londres, bazasiga utuntu duto mubiganiro. Niki urimo ukora mubucamanza, inteko ishinga amategeko, ubuyobozi n’ahandi niba udashobora kuzana imiterere yibibazo byibanze bya societe?

Ndatekereza rero ko ikibazo cyiswe Balaalo kwimukira mu gice icyo aricyo cyose cya Uganda cyangwa Afurika y’Iburasirazuba, cyasobanuwe nabi, kirangwa nabi

Itandukaniro riri hagati yo kwimuka mucyaro no mumijyi mugihe cya Noheri nabantu bafite amavalisi ya fancier na mooing nkeya, hamwe no kwimuka kwa “Balaalo” nuko Balaalo yimuka ninka zabo, ariko ubundi bituruka kumpamvu imwe yambere – kwimuka mubukungu. Balaalo ni abungeri b’inyamaswa, kandi gushaka urwuri rwatsi rwamatungo yabo ni kimwe mubuzima bwabo.

Niba ugenda ibirometero byinshi uvuye aho wavukiye ufite ivalisi kugirango ubone akazi, utangire ubucuruzi, usure umuryango, nibindi ntibigutera “Balaalo,” ariko kugendana ninyamaswa birabikora, noneho wumvise nabi imiterere yimibereho yawe.

Kyagulanyi Sentamu, umusore wa NUP ukomoka muri Ghetto, aherutse kuvuga kuri “abatunuza amannyo” (abareba amenyo) muri vitriol ye ya Luwero.

Ibi nibigerageza kugerageza amarangamutima ya politiki, bidafite ibisubizo byimbitse byingengabitekerezo hamwe numwuka wa Afrika.

Igihe gikurikira rero umuntu atereye “Balaalo” nkigitutsi cya politiki, ubibutse: ni ivalisi Balaalo ubwabo. Tangira gushima urusobe rwibinyabuzima rutuma iki gihugu cyasaze, cyiza cyane.

Ariko icy’ingenzi, reka ducike vitriol yo mumoko kandi twige ibyukuri. Aborozi b’inka, abahinzi, n’ubutaka ubwabwo – bamaze ibinyejana byinshi babyina tango, bashiraho urusobe rw’ibiribwa bitanga ishyari ry’akarere.

Ese aba bigana icyongereza bigeze biga uburyo akarere ka Ankole kanyuze mu karere ka Buganda mu musaruro wa Matooke, ikirangirire cya Buganda? Ntabwo nabonye impapuro zabo zuburyo abahinzi batigeze bakoresha ifumbire bakomeza kubona umusaruro mwinshi mubutaka bwabo? Abibeshaho bahinga – “Abalimi”, biragaragara ko bahitamo ubutaka bwahingwaga n’inka, kuko burumbuka cyane, kandi ubutaka bwakandagiye inka burahingwa cyane kuruta igihuru cyo mu gasozi. Biragoye cyane kubahinzi gufungura igihuru kitigeze gihingwa, mubusitani bwibiryo. Urusobe rw’ibinyabuzima rero rwabaye aho aho balaalo yimukira, abahinzi bakurikira, kandi guhinga cyane bikurikira.

Kandi kuri iyo nyandiko, gira kwimuka utekanye na Noheri nziza, mwebwe banyenduga b’amavalisi!

Translations / Tafsiri / Enkyusa/ Ibisobanuro/ Enzivuunula